Career counseling with lesbian clients: using the theory of work adjustment as a framework - Practical Techniques

Using the Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA; R. V. Dawis & L. H. Lofquist, 1984; L. H. Lofquist & R. V. Dawis, 1969) as a framework for identifying potential career challenges for lesbians, the authors explore the relationship between outness and discrimination and the four primary components of TWA. Career counseling implications are discussed, and specific suggestions are made for counselors.

Women who self-identify as lesbian represent a significant and invisible minority (Fassinger, 1991); current estimates suggest that as much as 3.6% of the population, or 2,300,000 women, are lesbian (Diamond, 1999). Statistics from the U.S. Bureau of the Census (2000) indicated that women, as a group, earn only 72% of the amount earned by their male counterparts. Lesbian women report even more diminished earnings, at 5% to 14% less than the national average for women (Badgett, 1995). Reported incidents of employment discrimination as well as hate crimes against lesbians have increased over the past 5 years (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2000). With these very real threats to economic and physical survival, it seems that a lesbian would have strong reasons for maintaining secrecy regarding her sexual orientation. Conversely, using the high amount of energy required to accomplish this may interfere with job performance and satisfaction and may stall career development and advancement (Fogarty, 1980). This di chotomy places lesbians in positions in which either choice may result in an outcome that is less than optimal, and possibly detrimental, to their careers. Lesbians must determine the most efficacious strategy for career advancement while balancing the importance of "outness" on the job against the potential for negative consequences.

Black, Gates, Sanders, and Taylor (2000) found that as a group, individuals who self-report as lesbian or gay exist in all age categories, approximate the racial mix found in the total population, and are better educated than the average individual. Many contemporary authors also emphasized the similarities between lesbians and heterosexual women in appearance, interests, goals, and identities (e.g., Loulan, 1990). Despite the similarities, however, lesbians often face more obstacles as they work to achieve their career goals, while following career paths that are often more circuitous and lengthy (Boatwright, Gilbert, Forrest, & Ketzenberger, 1996) than those of heterosexual women. Perceived and actual threats to employment security exist for lesbians and potentially limit self-disclosure. Yet, the process of sexual identity formation has been shown to transform, sometimes positively and sometimes negatively, virtually all aspects of a lesbian's life, including her career (Fassinger, 1996).

There are two specific concerns of lesbian career development that invite further exploration: the decision to disclose sexual orientation to others and the experience of discrimination that is based on sexual orientation. Because the Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA; Dawis & Lofquist, 1984; Lofquist & Dawis, 1969) is a comprehensive career theory that incorporates career choice and subsequent career development while addressing both individual characteristics and pertinent environmental factors, it is well-suited for application to lesbian career concerns. Using TWA as a framework, we explore career concerns of lesbians and discuss implications for career counseling.

Theory of Work Adjustment and Its Relationship to Lesbian Career Development

Career development literature that specifically examined the career concerns of lesbians and gay men is limited, and little empirical work has been completed to date. Several traditional career theories have been evaluated for their applicability to lesbians and gay men, including those of Holland (see Mobley & Slaney, 1996), Super (see Dunkle, 1996), and Social Cognitive Career Theory (see Morrow, Gore, & Campbell, 1996). Although strong cases are made in support of the applicability of these theories to lesbian career development, TWA seems to be an equally appropriate theory that is applicable to minority populations, particularly given TWA's focus on the individual's interface with the work environment.

TWA is the product of an integration of concepts from several different theoretical orientations, including individual differences, learning theory, human relations, and vocational psychology paradigms (Dawis, 1994). The four prime components of TWA are satisfaction, person--environment correspondence, reinforcement value, and ability. It is clear that lesbians face particular challenges within each of these four facets of career development.

Career Satisfaction

Career satisfaction involves an individual's attitudes and feelings, or affective orientation, regarding his or her work roles within an organization. Dawis and Lofquist (1984) defined this as an employee's appraisal of how well the work environment fulfils requirements for reinforcers or needs. In addition, TWA addresses the satisfaction of the environment with the individual, a concept called "satisfactoriness" (Dawis, 1994). Variables that contribute to career satisfaction are found within the individual and within the work environment (Lease, 1998). For lesbians, a specific environmental factor that inhibits career satisfaction is discrimination, both sanctioned and illicit, based solely on sexual orientation.